Multifunctional nanoparticles have received attention in a wide range of applications such as biosensors, diagnostic nanoprobes and targeted drug delivery systems. These efforts have been driven to a large extent by the need to improve biological specificity with reduced side effects in diagnosis and therapy through the precise, spatiotemporal control of agent delivery in various physiological systems. In order to achieve this goal, efforts have been dedicated to develop stimuli-responsive nanoplatforms. Environmental stimuli that have been exploited for pinpointing the delivery efficiency include pH, temperature, enzymatic expression, redox reaction and light induction. Among these activating signals, pH trigger is one of the most extensively studied stimuli based on two types of pH differences: (a) pathological (e.g. tumor) vs. normal tissues and (b) acidic intracellular compartments.
For example, due to the unusual acidity of the tumor extracellular microenvironment (pHe≈6.5), several pHe-responsive nanosystems have been reported to increase the sensitivity of tumor imaging or the efficacy of therapy. However, for polymer micelle compositions that release drug by hydrolysis in acidic environments, it can take days for the release of the drug. In that time period, the body can excrete or break down the micelles.
To target the acidic endo-/lysosomal compartments, nanovectors with pH-cleavable linkers have been investigated to improve payload bioavailability. Furthermore, several smart nanovectors with pH-induced charge conversion have been designed to increase drug efficacy. Despite these advances, specific transport and activation of nanoparticles and their interactions with different endocytic organelles during endocytosis in living cells is not well understood. The endocytic system is comprised of a series of compartments that have distinctive roles in the sorting, processing and degradation of internalized cargo. Selective targeting of different endocytic compartments by pH-sensitive nanoparticles is particularly challenging due to the short nanoparticle residence times (<mins) and small pH differences in these compartments (e.g. <1 pH unit between early endosomes and lysosomes).
Angiogenesis, the formation of new blood vessels, plays an essential role in normal physiological processes such as development and wound repair. Pathological angiogenesis occurs in tumors as well as a range of non-neoplastic diseases (e.g. diabetic retinopathy, endometriosis). In cancer, the formation of new blood vessels from an existing vasculature network is necessary for sustained tumor growth and exchange of nutrients and metabolic wastes. In the tumor microenvironment model of carcinogenesis, angiogenesis represents the last critical step to overcome the ischemia barrier. Acquisition of the angiogenic phenotype results in rapid tumor expansion, as well as facilitation of local invasion and cancer metastasis.
Tumor angiogenesis is a complex biological process that is orchestrated by a range of angiogenic factors. Initially, stressed tumor cells (e.g. under hypoxia) secrete growth factors and chemokines (e.g. VEGF-A) that stimulate quiescent vascular endothelium from adjacent host vessels to sprout new capillaries. These growth factors activate or upregulate the expression of integrins (e.g. αvβ3, □ αvβ5) on blood vessels, which promote endothelial cell migration and survival in the creation of new vessel sprouts. Mechanistic understanding of tumor angiogenesis has propelled the rapid development of a variety of antiangiogenesis agents. Bevacizumab (Avastin®, Genentech) is a humanized anti-VEGF antibody that inhibits VEGF binding to and signaling through VEGFR1 and VEGFR2 receptors that are over-expressed on angiogenic endothelial cells. It is clinically approved in combination with cytotoxic chemotherapy for the treatment of colorectal cancer, non-small cell lung cancer, and breast cancer. Sunitinib (Sutent®, Pfizer) and sorafenib (Nexavar®, Bayer Pharm. Corp.) are small molecule inhibitors of multiple receptor tyrosine kinases including the VEGF receptors. They have been approved by the FDA for the treatment of renal cell carcinoma, GI stromal tumors (sunitinib), and unresectable liver cancer (sorafenib). A variety of other targeted agents are currently in late stage clinical trials (e.g. Vitaxin and Cilengitide, which target αvβ3 integrin, are in phase II/III clinical trials for treatment of metastatic melanoma and prostate cancer).
Angiogenesis imaging holds considerable promise for early detection of cancer, as well as post-therapy assessment of many new molecular-targeted antiangiogenic therapies. Two main strategies, functional and targeted imaging, are currently employed in angiogenesis imaging. Functional imaging strategy measures the blood flow, tumor blood volume and vascular permeability of solid tumors. These imaging techniques include Doppler ultrasound, dynamic contrast-enhanced CT or MM. The major advantages are that they can be easily adapted and have already been clinically implemented to monitor the efficacy of antiangiogenic drugs. The major drawback is that these methods are not very specific toward tumor angiogenesis. Recently, targeted imaging strategy is under intensive investigation with potential advantage of more precise characterization of the state of endothelium in a tumor. Among key angiogenesis targets are VEGF and its receptors, integrins (e.g. αvβ3 and αvβ5), and matrix metalloproteases. Various imaging modalities, such as PET, MRI, optical imaging, ultrasound, are being investigated with different degrees of success.
For cancer molecular imaging applications, achieving high contrast sensitivity and specificity remains a formidable challenge. Currently, most conventional imaging probes utilize an always ON design of contrast probes and the contrast sensitivity arises from the difference in tissue accumulation of the imaging payloads. Low tissue concentrations of intended biomarkers, lack of an amplification strategy to increase signal output, and high background signals are several major limiting factors. For small molecular radiotracers (e.g. 64Cu-labeled cRGD), although the detection sensitivity is very high (e.g. <10−12 M), the contrast sensitivity is limited by their relatively low binding affinity to the targeted receptors and insufficient accumulation of imaging payloads in the targeted tissues. Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) have shown superb affinity and specificity to a variety of cancer cell surface markers. However, radiolabeled or fluorescently labeled mAbs are limited in molecular imaging applications due to their slow clearance times and persistent high background signals in blood. In many conventional contrast agents, the contrast sensitivity is intrinsically limited by the relatively low tissue concentrations of cancer biomarkers on one hand, and high non-specific background signals from the always ON nanoprobes on the other.
What is needed are improved pH-responsive micelle compositions for therapeutic and diagnostic applications, in particular compositions having one or more of: increased imaging and/or drug payloads, prolonged blood circulation times, high contrast sensitivity and specificity, rapid delivery of drug at the target site, and responsiveness within specific narrow pH ranges (e.g. for targeting of tumors or specific organelles).